Guidelines for the evaluation of probiotics in food: report of a Joint FAO/WHO Working Group. London, Ontario, Canada: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization; 2002.

Williams NT. Probiotics. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2010;67:449–58.

Fijan S. Microorganisms with claimed probiotic properties: an overview of recent literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014;11:4745–67.

Plaza-Diaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Gil-Campos M, Gil A. Mechanisms of action of probiotics. Adv Nutr 2019;10:S49–66

Angelin J, Kavitha M. Exopolysaccharides from probiotic bacteria and their health potential. Int J Biol Macromol 2020;162:853-65.

Ciszek-Lenda M. Review paper Biological functions of exopolysaccharides from probiotic bacteria. Cent Eur J Immunol 2011;36:51-5.

Conway J, Duggal NA. Ageing of the gut microbiome: potential influences on immunesenescence and inflammageing. Ageing Res Rev 2021;68:101323.

Arshad FA,Mehmood R, Khan S, Rubina M, Hussain S, Khan A, Farooq O. Lactobacilli as probiotics and their isolation from different sources. Br J Res 2018;5:1-11.

Nozari S, Faridvand Y, Etesami A, Ahmad Khan Beiki M, Miresmaeili Mazrakhondi SA, Abdolalizadeh J. Potential anticancer effects of cell wall protein fractions from Lactobacillus paracasei on human intestinal Caco-2 cell line. Lett Appl Microbiol 2019;69:148–54.

De la Torre A, Debiton E, Durand D, Chardigny JM, Berdeaux O, Loreau O, et al. Conjugated linoleic acid isomers and their conjugated derivatives inhibit growth of human cancer cell lines. Anticancer Res 2005;25:3943–9.

Blouin JM, Penot G, Collinet M, Nacfer M, Forest C, Laurent-Puig P, et al. Butyrate elicits a metabolic switch in human colon cancer cells by targeting the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Int J Cancer 2011;128:2591–601.

O’Mahony D, Murphy S, Boileau T, Park J, O’Brien F, Groeger D, et al. Bifidobacterium animalis AHC7 protects against pathogen-induced NF-κB activation in vivo. BMC Immunol 2010;11:63.

Furet JP, Kong LC, Tap J, Poitou C, Basdevant A, Bouillot JL, et al. Differential adaptation of human gut microbiota to bariatric surgery-induced weight loss: links with metabolic and low-grade inflammation markers. Diabetes 2010;59:3049–57.

Widodo W, Harsita PA, Ari Surya Sukarno, Nurrochmad A, Antidiabetic effect of milk fermented using intestinal probiotics. Nutr Food Sci 2019;49:1063-74.

Yadav H, Jain S, Sinha PR. Antidiabetic effect of probiotic dahi containing Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus casei in high fructose fed rats. Nutrition 2007;23:62-8.

Winkler P, Ghadimi D, Schrezenmeir J, Kraehenbuhl JP. Molecular and cellular basis of microflora-host interactions. J Nutr 2007;137:756-72.

Michail S. The role of probiotics in allergic diseases. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol 2009;5:5.

Pathmakanthan S, Li CKF, Cowie J, Hawkey CJ. Lactobacillus plantarum 299: beneficial in vitro immunomodulation in cells extracted from inflamed human colon. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;19:166–73.

Zhang W, Zhu B, Xu J, Liu Y, Qiu E, Li Z, et al. Bacteroides fragilis protects against antibiotic-associated diarrhea in rats by modulating intestinal defenses. Front Immunol 2018;9.

Regev A, Schiff ER. Liver disease in the elderly. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2001;30:547–63.

Warrington JS, Poku JW, von Moltke LL, Shader RI, Harmatz JS, Greenblatt DJ. Effects of age on in vitro midazolam biotransformation in male CD-1 mouse liver microsomes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2000;292:1024–31.

Seitz HK, Xu Y, Simanowski UA, Osswald B. Effect of age and gender on in vivo ethanol elimination, hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase activity, and NAD+ availability in F344 rats. Res Exp Med 1992;192:205–12.

Frith J, Day CP, Henderson E, Burt AD, Newton JL. Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Older People. Gerontology 2009;55:607–13.

Fooladi AA, Hosseini HM, Nourani MR, Khani S, Alavian SM. Probiotic as a novel treatment strategy against liver disease. Hepat Mon 2013;13.

Brestoff JR, Artis D. Commensal bacteria at the interface of host metabolism and the immune system. Nat Immunol 2013;14:676–84.

Choi SB, Lew LC, Yeo SK, Nair Parvathy S, Liong MT. Probiotics and the BSH-related cholesterol lowering mechanism: a Jekyll and Hyde scenario. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2015;35:392–401.

Sivamaruthi BS, Fern LA, Rashidah Pg Hj Ismail DSN, Chaiyasut C. The influence of probiotics on bile acids in diseases and aging. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;128:110310.

Ahn YT, Kim GB, Lim KS, Baek YJ, Kim HU. Deconjugation of bile salts by Lactobacillus acidophilus isolates. Int Dairy J 2003;13:303–11.

Lye HS, Rusul G, Liong MT. Removal of cholesterol by lactobacilli via incorporation and conversion to coprostanol. J Dairy Sci 2010;93:1383–92.

Jones ML, Martoni CJ, Parent M, Prakash S. Cholesterol-lowering efficacy of a microencapsulated bile salt hydrolase-active Lactobacillus reuteri NCIMB 30242 yoghurt formulation in hypercholesterolaemic adults. Br J Nutr 2012;107:1505–13.

Tok E, Aslim B. Cholesterol removal by some lactic acid bacteria that can be used as probiotic. Microbiol Immunol 2010;54:257–64.

Reid G. Safe and efficacious probiotics: what are they? Trends Microbiol 2006;14:348–52.

Beausoleil M, Fortier N, Guénette S, L’ecuyer A, Savoie M, Franco M, et al. Effect of a fermented milk combining Lactobacillus acidophilus Cl1285 and Lactobacillus casei in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Can J Gastroenterol 2007;21:732–6.

Sanders ME. Probiotics: definition, sources, selection, and uses. Clin Infect Dis 2008;46:58-61.

Fontana L, Bermudez-Brito M, Plaza-Diaz J, Muñoz-Quezada S, Gil A. Sources, isolation, characterisation and evaluation of probiotics. Br J Nutr 2013;109:S35-50.

Lyons KE, Ryan CA, Dempsey EM, Ross RP, Stanton C. Breast milk, a source of beneficial microbes and associated benefits for infant health. Nutrients 2020;12:1039.

Li Y, Jia D, Wang J, Li H, Yin X, Liu J, et al. Probiotics isolated from animals in Northwest China improve the intestinal performance of mice. Front Vet Sci 2021;8:750895.

Swain MR, Anandharaj M, Ray RC, Parveen Rani R. Fermented fruits and vegetables of Asia: a potential source of probiotics. Biotechnol Res Int 2014;2014.

Handajani YS, Turana Y, Yogiara Y, Sugiyono SP, Lamadong V, Widjaja NT, et al. Effects of tempeh probiotics on elderly with cognitive impairment. Front Aging Neurosci 2022;14:891773.

Dobson A, Cotter PD, Ross RP, Hill C. Bacteriocin production: a probiotic trait? Appl Environ Microbiol 2012;78:1-6.

Hernández-González JC, Martínez-Tapia A, Lazcano-Hernández G, García-Pérez BE, Castrejón-Jiménez NS. Bacteriocins from lactic acid bacteria. A powerful alternative as antimicrobials, probiotics, and immunomodulators in veterinary medicine. Animals 2021;11:979.

Drewe J, Beglinger C, Fricker G. Effect of ischemia on intestinal permeability of lipopolysaccharides: Lipopolysaccharide absorption. Eur J Clin Invest 2001;31:138–44.

Gomes AC, Bueno AA, de Souza RGM, Mota JF. Gut microbiota, probiotics and diabetes. Nutr J 2014;13:60.

Markowiak-Kopeć P, Šližewska K. The effect of probiotics on the production of short-chain fatty acids by human intestinal microbiome. Nutrients 2020;12:1107.

Gillor O, Etzion A, Riley MA. The dual role of bacteriocins as anti- and probiotics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2008;81:591–606.

Sánchez B, Urdaci MC. Extracellular proteins from Lactobacillus plantarum BMCM12 prevent adhesion of enteropathogens to mucin. Curr Microbiol 2012;64:592-6.

Wang Y, Liu L, Moore DJ, Shen X, Peek RM, Acra SA, et al. An LGG-derived protein promotes IgA production through upregulation of APRIL expression in intestinal epithelial cells. Mucosal Immunol 2017;10:373-84.

Yan F, Cao H, Cover TL, Whitehead R, Washington MK, Polk DB. Soluble proteins produced by probiotic bacteria regulate intestinal epithelial cell survival and growth. Gastroenterol 2007 1;132:562-75.

Liu Q, Yu Z, Tian F, Zhao J, Zhang H, Zhai Q, et al. Surface components and metabolites of probiotics for regulation of intestinal epithelial barrier. Microb Cell Fact 2020;19:23.

Wu H, Jiang L, Shum T-F, Chiou J. Elucidation of anti-hypertensive mechanism by a novel Lactobacillus rhamnosus AC1 fermented soymilk in the deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt hypertensive rats. Nutrients 2022;14:3174.

Chikindas ML, Weeks R, Drider D, Chistyakov VA, Dicks LMT. Functions and emerging applications of bacteriocins. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2018;49:23–8.

Syiemlieh I, Morya S. Dairy and non-dairy based probiotics: a review. Pharma Innov J 2022;11:2956-64.

Ranadheera CS, Vidanarachchi JK, Rocha RS, Cruz AG, Ajlouni S. Probiotic delivery through fermentation: dairy vs. non-dairy beverages. Fermentation 2017;3:67.

Shori AB. The potential applications of probiotics on dairy and non-dairy foods focusing on viability during storage. Biocatal Agric Biotechno 2015;4:423-31.

Somashekaraiah R, Shruthi B, Deepthi BV, Sreenivasa MY. Probiotic properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from Neera: a naturally fermenting coconut palm nectar. Front Microbiol 2019;10:1382.

Prado MR, Blandón LM, Vandenberghe LPS, Rodrigues C, Castro GR, Thomaz-Soccol V, et al. Milk kefir: composition, microbial cultures, biological activities, and related products. Front Microbiol 2015;6:1177.

Linares-Morales JR, Cuellar-Nevárez GE, Rivera-Chavira BE, Gutiérrez-Méndez N, Pérez-Vega SB, Nevárez-Moorillón GV. Selection of lactic acid bacteria isolated from fresh fruits and vegetables based on their antimicrobial and enzymatic activities. Foods 2020;9:1399.

Salazar N, Valdés-Varela L, González S, Gueimonde M, de los Reyes-Gavilán CG. Nutrition and the gut microbiome in the elderly. Gut Microbes 2017;8:82–97.

Nagpal R, Newman TM, Wang S, Jain S, Lovato JF, Yadav H. Obesity-linked gut microbiome dysbiosis associated with derangements in gut permeability and intestinal cellular homeostasis independent of diet. J Diabetes Res 2018;2018:3462092.

Biragyn A, Ferrucci L. Gut dysbiosis: a potential link between increased cancer risk in ageing and inflammaging. Lancet Oncol 2018;19:e295–304.

Kumar R, Sood U, Gupta V, Singh M, Scaria J, Lal R. Recent advancements in the development of modern probiotics for restoring human gut microbiome dysbiosis. Indian J Microbiol 2020;60:12–25.

Kumar M, Babaei P, Ji B, Nielsen J. Human gut microbiota and healthy aging: Recent developments and future prospective. Nutr Healthy Aging 2016;4:3–16.

Ducatelle R, Eeckhaut V, Haesebrouck F, Van Immerseel F. A review on prebiotics and probiotics for the control of dysbiosis: present status and future perspectives. Animal 2015;9:43–8.

Ragonnaud E, Biragyn A. Gut microbiota as the key controllers of “healthy” aging of elderly people. Immun Ageing 2021;18:2.

Claesson MJ, Cusack S, O’Sullivan O, Greene-Diniz R, de Weerd H, Flannery E, et al. Composition, variability, and temporal stability of the intestinal microbiota of the elderly. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011;108:4586–91.

Eloe-Fadrosh EA, Brady A, Crabtree J, Drabek EF, Ma B, Mahurkar A, et al. Functional dynamics of the gut microbiome in elderly people during probiotic consumption. MBio 2015;6.

Robles-Vera I, Toral M, de la Visitación N, Sánchez M, Gómez-Guzmán M, Romero M, et al. Probiotics prevent dysbiosis and the rise in blood pressure in genetic hypertension: Role of short-chain fatty acids. Mol Nutr Food Res 2020;64.

Wang R, Tang R, Li B, Ma X, Schnabl B, Tilg H. Gut microbiome, liver immunology, and liver diseases. Cell Mol Immunol 2021;18:4–17.

Markowiak P, Šližewska K. Effects of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on human health. Nutrients 2017;9:1021.

Bosco N, Noti M. The aging gut microbiome and its impact on host immunity. Genes Immun 2021;22:289–303.

Li H, Qi Y, Jasper H. Preventing age-related decline of gut compartmentalization limits microbiota dysbiosis and extends lifespan. Cell Host Microbe 2016;19:240–53.

Meurman JH. Probiotics: do they have a role in oral medicine and dentistry? Eur J Oral Sci 2005;113:188-96.

Allaker RP, Stephen AS. Use of probiotics and oral health. Curr Oral Health Rep 2017;4:309-18.

Elahi S, Pang G, Ashman R, Clancy R. Enhanced clearance of Candida albicans from the oral cavities of mice following oral administration of Lactobacillus acidophilus. Clin Exp Immunol 2005;141:29-36.

Lockhart SR, Joly S, Vargas K, Swails-Wenger J, Enger L, Soll DR. Natural defenses against Candida colonization breakdown in the oral cavities of the elderly. J Dent Res 1999;78:857-68.

Hatakka K, Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, Richardson M, Poussa T, Meurman JH, Korpela R. Probiotics reduce the prevalence of oral Candida in the elderly—a randomized controlled trial. J Dent Res 2007;86:125-30.

Buford TW. (Dis)Trust your gut: the gut microbiome in age-related inflammation, health, and disease. Microbiome 2017;5.

Thevaranjan N, Puchta A, Schulz C, Naidoo A, Szamosi JC, Verschoor CP, et al. Age-associated microbial dysbiosis promotes intestinal permeability, systemic inflammation, and macrophage dysfunction. Cell Host Microbe 2017;21:455-66.

Nova E, Wärnberg J, Gómez-Martínez S, Díaz LE, Romeo J, Marcos A. Immunomodulatory effects of probiotics in different stages of life. Br J Nutr 2007;98:S90-5.

Chiang BL, Sheih YH, Wang LH, Liao CK, Gill HS. Enhancing immunity by dietary consumption of a probiotic lactic acid bacterium (Bifidobacterium lactis HN019): optimization and definition of cellular immune responses. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54:849–55.

Lefevre M, Racedo SM, Ripert G, Housez B, Cazaubiel M, Maudet C, et al. Probiotic strain Bacillus subtilis CU1 stimulates immune system of elderly during common infectious disease period: a randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Immun Ageing 2015;12:24.

Haller D, Bode C, Hammes WP, Pfeifer AM, Schiffrin EJ, Blum S. Non-pathogenic bacteria elicit a differential cytokine response by intestinal epithelial cell/leucocyte co-cultures. Gut 2000;47:79–87.

Galdeano CM, Perdigón G. Role of viability of probiotic strains in their persistence in the gut and in mucosal immune stimulation. J Appl Microbiol 2004;97:673–81.

Akatsu H, Iwabuchi N, Xiao JZ, Matsuyama Z, Kurihara R, Okuda K, et al. Clinical effects of probiotic Bifidobacterium longum BB536 on immune function and intestinal microbiota in elderly patients receiving enteral tube feeding. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2013;37:631–40.

Takeda K, Suzuki T, Shimada SI, Shida K, Nanno M, Okumura K. Interleukin-12 is involved in the enhancement of human natural killer cell activity by Lactobacillus casei Shirota. Clin Exp Immunol 2006;146:109-15.

Dong H, Rowland I, Thomas LV, Yaqoob P. Immunomodulatory effects of a probiotic drink containing Lactobacillus casei Shirota in healthy older volunteers. Eur J Nutr 2013;52:1853–63.

Delcenserie V, Martel D, Lamoureux M, Amiot J, Boutin Y, Roy D. Immunomodulatory effects of probiotics in the intestinal tract. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2008;10:37–54.

McCabe LR, Irwin R, Schaefer L, Britton RA. Probiotic use decreases intestinal inflammation and increases bone density in healthy male but not female mice. J Cell Physiol 2013;228:1793-8.

Rizzoli R, Biver E. Are probiotics the new calcium and vitamin D for bone health? Curr Osteoporos Rep 2020;18:273-84.

Jones ML, Martoni CJ, Prakash S. Oral supplementation with probiotic L. reuteri NCIMB 30242 increases mean circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a post hoc analysis of a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:2944-51.

Camilleri M. Management of the irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterol 2001;120:652–68.

Whelan K, Quigley EMM. Probiotics in the management of irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2013;29:184–9.

Sokol H, Seksik P, Furet JP, Firmesse O, Nion-Larmurier I, Beaugerie L, et al. Low counts of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in colitis microbiota. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2009;15:1183–9.

Ouwehand AC, Bergsma N, Parhiala R, Lahtinen S, Gueimonde M, Finne-Soveri H, et al. Bifidobacterium microbiota and parameters of immune function in elderly subjects. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2008;53:18–25.

Zaharoni H, Rimon E, Vardi H, Friger M, Bolotin A, Shahar DR. Probiotics improve bowel movements in hospitalized elderly patients--the PROAGE study. J Nutr Health Aging 2011;15:215–20.

Fukushima Y, Miyaguchi S, Yamano T, Kaburagi T, Iino H, Ushida K, et al. Improvement of nutritional status and incidence of infection in hospitalised, enterally fed elderly by feeding of fermented milk containing probiotic Lactobacillus johnsonii La1 (NCC533). Br J Nutr 2007;98:969–77.

Guarino A, Guandalini S, Lo Vecchio A. Probiotics for prevention and treatment of diarrhea. J Clin Gastroenterol 2015;49:S37-45.

Hickson M, D’Souza AL, Muthu N, Rogers TR, Want S, Rajkumar C, et al. Use of probiotic Lactobacillus preparation to prevent diarrhoea associated with antibiotics: randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. BMJ 2007;335:80.

McFarland LV. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea: epidemiology, trends and treatment. Future Microbiol 2008;3:563–78

Xie C, Li J, Wang K, Li Q, Chen D. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in older patients: a systematic review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2015;13:128–34.

Castagliuolo I, Riegler MF, Valenick L, LaMont JT, Pothoulakis C. Saccharomyces boulardii protease inhibits the effects of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B in human colonic mucosa. Infect Immun 1999;67:302–7.

Gao XW, Mubasher M, Fang CY, Reifer C, Miller LE. Dose–response efficacy of a proprietary probiotic formula of lactobacillus acidophiluscl1285 and lactobacillus caseilbc80r for antibiotic-associated diarrhea andclostridium difficile-associated diarrhea prophylaxis in adult patients. Am J Gastroenterol 2010;105:1636-41.

Solga SF. Probiotics can treat hepatic encephalopathy. Med Hypotheses 2003;61:307–13.

Cesaro C, Tiso A, Del Prete A, Cariello R, Tuccillo C, Cotticelli G, et al. Gut microbiota and probiotics in chronic liver diseases. Dig Liver Dis 2011;43:431–8.

Chen C, Li L, Wu Z, Chen H, Fu S. Effects of lactitol on intestinal microflora and plasma endotoxin in patients with chronic viral hepatitis. J Infect 2007;54:98–102.

aka Q, Duan ZP, Ha DK, Bengmark S, Kurtovic J, Riordan SM. Synbiotic modulation of gut flora: effect on minimal hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis. Hepatology 2004;39:1441–9.

Moratalla A, Gómez-Hurtado I, Moya-Pérez Á, Zapater P, Peiró G, González-Navajas JM, et al. Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT7765 promotes a TLR2-dependent anti-inflammatory response in intestinal lymphocytes from mice with cirrhosis. Eur J Nutr 2016;55:197–206.

Regev A, Schiff ER. Liver disease in the elderly. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2001;30:547-63.

Kim H, Kisseleva T, Brenner DA. Aging and liver disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2015;31:184.

Thakur N, Rokana N, Panwar H. Probiotics: Selection criteria, safety and role in health and disease. J Innov Biol 2016;3:259–70.

Didari T, Solki S, Mozaffari S, Nikfar S, Abdollahi M. A systematic review of the safety of probiotics. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2014;13:227–39.

Sherid M, Samo S, Sulaiman S, Husein H, Sifuentes H, Sridhar S. Liver abscess and bacteremia caused by lactobacillus: role of probiotics? case report and review of the literature. BMC Gastroenterol 2016;16:138.

Costa RL, Moreira J, Lorenzo A, Lamas CC. Infectious complications following probiotic ingestion: a potentially underestimated problem? a systematic review of reports and case series. BMC Complement Altern Med 2018;18:329.

Pasala S, Singer L, Arshad T, Roach K. Lactobacillus endocarditis in a healthy patient with probiotic use. IDCases 2020;22:e00915.

Meini S, Laureano R, Fani L, Tascini C, Galano A, Antonelli A, Rossolini GM. Breakthrough Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG bacteremia associated with probiotic use in an adult patient with severe active ulcerative colitis: case report and review of the literature. Infection 2015;43:777-81.

Naidu KSB, Adam JK, Govender P. The use of probiotics and safety concerns: a review. Afr J Microbiol Res 2012;6:6871–7.

Binda S, Hill C, Johansen E, Obis D, Pot B, Sanders ME, et al. Criteria to qualify microorganisms as “probiotic” in foods and dietary supplements. Front Microbiol 2020;11:1662.

Antushevich H. Fecal microbiota transplantation in disease therapy. Clinica Chimica Acta 2020;503:90-8.

Nami Y, Haghshenas B, Abdullah N, Barzegari A, Radiah D, Rosli R, Yari Khosroushahi A. Probiotics or antibiotics: future challenges in medicine. J Med Microbiol 2015;64:137-46.